Design Of Calipers For Post Polio Paralytic Patients Engineering Essay

Design Of Calipers For Post Polio Paralytic Patients Engineering Essay ABSTRACT Over 13 million in India people suffer from various locomotor disabilities, of which 4 million have been afflicted by polio. Polio destroys the nervous system and causes paralysis of the limbs. An orthosis or brace is required to provide support to compensate for the weakened muscles, maintain proper positioning and stability of the affected joints, restore weight-bearing capabilities to the affected legs and allow the patient to walk without the risk of falls and further fractures. The objective of this project is to develop a design for adjustable polio braces, taking into consideration hinge movement at the knee. The current designs of KAFO are made of Stainless Steel, Aluminium, Thermoplastics, Reinforced Carbon fibers etc. While Aluminium is light-weight, it does not provide the required stiffness for the caliper design; Stainless Steel is corrosion resistant and has great yield strength but is heavy. Hence material analysis is done to chose a material with density between that of Aluminium and Stainless Steel, but with high ultimate strength and high fatigue endurance limit. Also the currently available designs do not incorporate flexible movement at the knee thus discomforting the patient during travel etc. The proposed design is done using CAD tools. A pilot prototype is made in PVC and field-tested to determine if adjustments can be easily performed by the patient. Based on feedback from the field-testing, the final model was designed using Titanium scr aps. ABOUT THE COMPANY M/s. AAROPNA PROTESI PRIVATE LTD. is a medical implants surgical instruments manufacturing and trading company. Our choice of this company was based on its expertise in developing biomedical instruments and implants and its association as a subsidiary of its parent company parent M/s. TITANIUM TANTALUM PRODUCTS LTD, which is an ISO 9001:2008 certified company dealing in various Titanium Products for the past 29 years. The objective of the company is to establish the necessary world-class infrastructure for design, develop, manufacture, package, trade market the Orthopaedic, Neurosurgical, Orthodontic, Dental and other similar reconstructive / replacement implants and its surgical instruments in Titanium alloys and other advanced Biomaterial. Aaropna Protesi Private Ltd. deals with designing of medical implants through biomechanical laws and the development, customization and optimization of medical implants and instruments using technology of CAD-CAM Solutions. It trades in world-class imported medical implants, surgical instruments, tools other surgical accessories in India. It has more than two decades of experience in handling Titanium, Tantalum, Zirconium and Niobium through its parent company. INTRODUCTION 1.1 WHAT IS POLIOMYELITIS? Poliomyelitis, often known as polio or infantile paralysis, is an acute viral infectious disease spread from person to person, primarily via the fecal-oral route. [1] In about 1% of cases the virus enters the central nervous system, preferentially infecting and destroying motor neurons, leading to muscle weakness and acute flaccid paralysis. Different types of paralysis may occur, depending on the nerves involved; spinal polio is the most common form, characterized by asymmetric paralysis that most often involves the legs. [2] The term poliomyelitis is used to identify the disease caused by any of the three distinct variations of poliovirus. Two basic patterns of polio infection are described: a minor illness which does not involve the central nervous system (CNS), sometimes called abortive poliomyelitis, and a major illness involving the CNS, which may be paralytic or non-paralytic. [1] In most people with a normal immune system, a poliovirus infection is asymptomatic. The virus enters the central nervous system in about 3% of infections. Most patients with CNS involvement develop non-paralytic aseptic meningitis, with symptoms of headache, neck, back, abdominal and extremity pain, fever, vomiting, lethargy and irritability. [2][3] Approximately 1 in 1000 to 1 in 200 cases progress to paralytic disease, in which the muscles become weak, floppy and poorly controlled, and finally completely paralyzed; this condition is known as acute flaccid paralysis. [4] In many countries, polio or poliomyelitis was for many years the most common cause of physical disability in children.[1] Currently through vaccination programs, Polio has been eliminated in most countries, a size-able percentage of people are still affected by the crippling disease in India, Nepal, Nigeria and Afghanistan. Often the paralysis will gradually disappear, partly or completely. Any paralysis left after 7 months, however is usually permanent and certain secondary problems may develop, especially if precautions are not taken to prevent them. These problems are further disabilities or complications that can appear after, and because of, the original disability. Contracture of joints is one commonly encountered secondary problem. In this there is a shortening of muscles and tendons so that the full range of limb movement is prevented. [5] Fig. 1.1 Typical contractures in polio Other common deformities can cause deformities including over stretched joints and dislocations. Fig. 1.2 Deformities caused by polio 1.2 EVALUATING A PATIENTS NEED FOR AIDS AND PROCEDURES Step1: Observe the patient carefully and notice which parts of the body seem strong, and which seem weak. Differences between one side of the body and the other are identified such as differences in the length or thickness of the legs. Other deformities, unusual gait, tilt to one side, supporting limbs, position of hips, shoulder and curve of back are also observed. These early observations will help you know what parts of the body you most need to check for strength and range of motion. [5] Step2: This is the physical examination. It should usually include: Range-of-motion testing, especially where there might be contractures. Muscle testing, especially of muscles that may be weak. Also test muscles that need to be strong to make up for weak ones (such as arm and shoulder strength for crutch use). Check for deformities: contractures; dislocations (hip, knee, foot, shoulder and elbow); difference in leg length; tilt of hips and curve or abnormal shape of the back. Step3: After the physical exam, again observe how the patient moves or walks. The particular way of moving and walking is related with the physical findings (such as weakness of certain muscles, contractures, and leg length). Step4: Based on observations and tests, a study is done to understand what assistance might help the patient. Different aspects of the aid must be considered such as: benefit, cost, comfort, appearance, availability of materials, and whether the patient is comfortable. Step5: Once the assist device has been decided, the necessary measurements are taken to make the brace or aid. When making it, once again it is wise to put it together temporarily so that adjustments can be made before it is rivet, glue, or nail it into its final form. Step6: Have the patient try the brace or aid for a few days to get used to it and to see how well it works. If there is discomfort or any problems, alternate improvements or necessary adjustments should be made. 1.3 DESCRIPTION OF A CALIPER Braces or calipers are aids that help hold legs or other parts of the body in useful positions. They usually serve either one or both of the purposes given below: To provide support, strength/firmness to a weak joint (or joints). To help prevent or correct the deformity. ORTHOTIC DEVICE: An orthosis or orthotic is an orthopedic device that supports or corrects the function of a limb or the torso [6]. An orthopaedic brace or orthotic is an orthopaedic device used to: Control, guide, limit and/or immobilize an extremity, joint or body segment for a particular reason To restrict movement in a given direction To assist movement generally To reduce weight bearing forces for a particular purpose To aid rehabilitation from fractures after the removal of a cast To otherwise correct the shape and/or function of the body, to provide easier movement capability or reduce pain. [6] LOWER LIMB ORTHOSIS: A lower-limb orthotic is an external device that is attached to the lower limb as a whole or limb segment in order to improve its function by providing support, reducing pain through transferring load to another area or correcting flexible deformities. NOMENCLATURE FOR CALIPERS Calipers are named after the joints that they replace the function of. The following are the acronyms used: Ankle Foot Orthosis (A.F.O.) Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis (K.A.F.O.) Hip Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis (H.K.A.F.O.) ANKLE FOOT ORTHOSIS (A.F.O.s): Ankle foot orthoses are orthotic devices encompassing the  ankle  joint and all (or part) of the  foot. AFOs are externally applied and intended to control position and motion of the ankle, compensate for weakness, or correct deformities. [6]   Fig. 1.3 Ankle Foot Orthosis KNEE ANKLE FOOT ORTHOSIS (K.A.F.O.): A knee-ankle-foot orthosis provides flexion, extension and mediolateral stabilization of the knee; may provide free or locked knee motion, or adjustable range of motion [7]. A knee-ankle-foot orthotic is typically designed to enable patients suffering from weakness or lack of control of the knee joint to walk safely. It is also used as an independent walking device for a walking-impaired person whose lower limb is paralyzed or whose muscle function is lost due to his spinal cord injury, diseases (such as polio), cerebrovascular disorder, external wounds and so forth. It is comprised of a main hinge assembly, an ankle assembly, a foot plate; a lower leg housing member; an upper leg housing member and supporting structure. Fig. 1.4 Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis HIP KNEE ANKLE FOOT ORTHOSIS (H.K.A.F.O) HKAFO is basically a KAFO with addition of hip joint and pelvic section which  provide control to selected hip motions.   The motions included at the hip are front to back, side to side, and rotation. In the HKAFO there is a minimized risk of the hip  moving out of proper position or dislocating. In this type of caliper, the  hip and lower spine is stabilized in cases where the patient is weak or paralyzed. Fig. 1.5 Hip Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis The average weight of stainless steel calipers are given below. Table 1.1 Weight of conventional stainless steel calipers TYPE OF CALIPER WEIGHT (kg) A.F.O. 1.100 K.A.F.O. 1.600 H.K.A.F.O. 2.250 2. LITREATURE SURVEY Literatures on existing Calipers and design In the literature survey, various designs of existing calipers have been proposed. The patients comfort level, flexibility, cost-effectiveness and weight form the most important basis for the design of the caliper. Some of the recently published works are as follows: Table 2.1: Literature Survey SL.NO TITLE AUTHOR TECHNICAL DETAILS CONCLUSIONS/ LIMITATIONS 1. Anatomical Models of Diarthroidal Joints: Rigid Multibody Systems and Deformable Structures JH Heggard Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering- Volume 2, 2003 Mathematical methods to model diarthroidal joints. Modelling of the joints is necessary to be able to understand the difficulty faced in movement by a post-polio paralytic patient. The various forces and stresses acting on the joints were studied in order to understand various basic movements and to help in the design of calipers. 2. Bioengineering Analysis of Force Actions Transmitted by the Knee Joint JK Marrisson Biomedical Engineering, 5: 164-178, 1988 Determining forces acting on the knee joint as the caliper to be designed is a K.A.F.O(Knee-Ankle-Foot-Orthosis) caliper. Forces on knee joint during locomotion 3. Orthopaedic Prosthesis and Joint Implants Shan Fengwang, Lichun L, Michael J. Yaszemski Biomedical Engineering, 2: 1984 Study of Titanium and its properties such as biocompatibility, light weightedness, density, youngs modulus to check for its use in the manufacture of calipers Use of titanium in biomedical applications and how this could be extended to the manufacture of calipers and reduce the discomfort and weight of the same. 2.1 WORKFLOW Start Caliper Classification Similar Products Analysis Commercial Intelligence Material Selection Manufacturing Process Recognition of Tools and Machineries Development Design of Product Modelling Analysis Fabrication of Prototype Model Fabrication of Prototype Model Testing Verification I/P=O/P Stop Root cause analysis for failure Recognition of Caliper and its Application Fig. 2.1 Workflow 3. SELECTON OF MATERIAL For the design of a caliper, a material is chosen based on its physical properties such as tensile strength, elastic modulus, yield stress, etc. The choice of material is based on a comparative analysis of these factors. Ideally, a material should be chosen such that the caliper is: Comfortable Lightweight, yet strong Easy to handle Cost-effective Durable As attractive as possible Easy to manufacture [8] 3.1 MATERIALS CURRENTLY USED FOR PRODUCTION OF CALIPERS: Braces are made from various types of materials-plastic, elastic, metal, or a combination of similar materials.  At present calipers are of two types: Metallic made from Aluminum, Stainless steel Non-metallic- made from polypropylene, reinforced carbon Advantages of metallic calipers over non-metallic calipers: Less expensive to manufacture: Metallic calipers are cheaper to produce because those manufactured using poly-propylene require specialized moulds to shape the polymer. The biggest expense in making plastic braces is the plaster bandage used for casting a mold of the leg. Easier to customize for each patient: As the height and contours of each patient differs, the metal rods are easier to customize than plastic calipers. They are quick and easy to make They are more durable than plastic calipers. If used with sandals or clogs, in hot weather they are cooler than plastic. 3.2 TITANIUM AS AN ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL: 3.2.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM Titanium is a chemical element, metallic in nature whose chemical symbol is Ti , atomic number 22 and atomic weight 47.90. Ti is a transition metal silver in color It has the following properties: low density high tensile strength corrosion-resistant There are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8%). [8] It is the ninth-most abundant element in the Earths crust (0.63% by mass) and the seventh-most abundant metal. [8] Titanium and its alloys possess suitable mechanical properties such as strength, bend strength and fatigue resistance to be used in load-bearing biomedical applications such as orthopaedics and dentistry. Titanium is a reactive metal. In air, water, or arbitrary electrolytes an oxide layer is formed on the surface of the material. This oxide belongs to one of the most resistant compounds in the mineral world. As the oxide layer is a dense film it protects the metal from chemical attack which is of importance in an aggressive biological environment. Within the human body, titanium is inert as the oxide layer which is formed is in contact with the biological tissue, is hardly soluble and in particular no ions are released that could react with other molecules. [9] There are 22 grades of commercially available alloyed and unalloyed titanium. Based on the application, a suitable grade is chosen. 3.2.2 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF STAINLESS STEEL, ALUMINIUM AND TITANIUM Metals used for the purpose of designing calipers are required to have both high static and cycle-dependent properties. Tensile yield and ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity, and fatigue endurance limit are the principal metallic strength attributes that must be determined. Wear resistance is also an important criterion for all biomaterials. Excessive wear can lead to premature mechanical failure of the replacement component. Table 3.1. Comparative study of the physical properties of the different materials PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MATERIALS Stainless steel Aluminium Titanium Density (g ·cmà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢3) 9.0 2.70 4.51 Ultimate strength (MPa) 860 455 900 Yield strength (MPa) 520 400 830 Yield stress (MPa) 210-350 40-50 240-370 Youngs modulus (GPa) 205 70 110-125 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion ( °F-1) 7.810-6 12.910-6. 5.010-6 Density: Density of a material is defined as the concentration of matter as measured by the mass per unit volume. A higher density indicates a higher mass for a particular volume. Titanium has density between stainless steel and aluminium indicating that for the same volume of material, titanium is lighter than stainless steel but heavier than aluminium. Ultimate strength: Ultimate strength, also known as tensile strength, is defined as the maximum stress a material can withstand before necking. Ultimate strength should be desirably, high for a material. Titanium has ultimate strength higher than stainless steel and twice as high as aluminium indicating that it can withstand greater tensile stress i.e. it can withstand more stress before necking. Fig.3.1 Stress-Strain curve Yield Strength: Yield strength is defined as the property of a material to resist deformation. For a good material, the yield strength should be high. The yield strength for titanium is almost twice as high as stainless steel and aluminium indicating that it can withstand more stress without deforming permanently. Yield Stress: Yield stress is defined as the minimum amount of stress which when applied to the body causes permanent deformation. Even if the applied stress is removed at this point, the object does not return to its original dimensions. The yield stress of titanium is almost equal to stainless steel but more than 6 times than that of aluminium. Youngs Modulus: Youngs modulus is the ratio between stress applied and resulting strain. It is used as a measure of change in linear dimensions upon application of tensile stress. If this ratio is large, it indicates that the material can withstand stress better with less deformation. The Youngs Modulus of titanium is higher than aluminium but lesser than that of stainless steel. The modulus is an important concern in the orthopedic application of biomaterials because: Bone has a modulus on the order of 17 GPa. The discrepancy between the modulus of bone and that of the alloys used to support structural loads means that the metallic devices implanted in the body take a disproportionate share of the load applied as stress. According to Wolffs Law, bone adapts to applied stress. Because alloys cause stress shielding one result of the adaptation is that the bone associated with the implant does not become or remain as strong as it would in the absence of an implant. [12] Linear Coefficient of Expansion: Linear coefficient of expansion is defined as the increase in length per degree rise in temperature. If a metal is alternately subjected to heating and cooling cycles, it should maintain a certain tolerance of dimensions i.e. a low coefficient of thermal expansion is desirable. The linear coefficient of expansion of titanium is much lesser than both stainless steel and aluminium indicating that the change in the dimensions of the object with change in temperature is less, which is desirable. 3.2.3 GRADES OF TITANIUM There are 22 grades of commercially available alloyed and unalloyed titanium. [10] Referenced standards: ASTM- American Standards for Testing Materials This standard is issued under the fixed designation B 338 as revised on November 2003. [15] ASTM Specification for commercially pure titanium: F-67 Table 3.2 Grades of titanium GRADE COMPOSITION Grade 1 Unalloyed titanium Grade 2 Unalloyed titanium Grade 3 Unalloyed titanium Grade 7 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.12 to 0.25 % palladium Grade 9 Titanium alloy (3 % aluminum, 2.5 % vanadium) Grade 11 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.12 to 0.25 % palladium Grade 12 Titanium alloy (0.3 % molybdenum, 0.8 % nickel) Grade 13 Titanium alloy (0.5 % nickel, 0.05 % ruthenium) Grade 14 Titanium alloy (0.5 % nickel, 0.05 % ruthenium) Grade 15 Titanium alloy (0.5 % nickel, 0.05 % ruthenium) Grade 16 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.04 to 0.08 % palladium Grade 17 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.04 to 0.08 % palladium Grade 18 Titanium alloy (3 % aluminum, 2.5 % vanadium) plus 0.04 to 0.08 % palladium Grade 26 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.08 to 0.14 % ruthenium Grade 27 Unalloyed titanium plus 0.08 to 0.14 % ruthenium Grade 28 Titanium alloy (3 % aluminum, 2.5 % vanadium) plus 0.08 to 0.14 % ruthenium Grade 30 Titanium alloy (0.3 % cobalt, 0.05 % palladium) Grade 31 Titanium alloy (0.3 % cobalt, 0.05 % palladium) Grade 33 Titanium alloy (0.4 % nickel, 0.015 % palladium, 0.025 % ruthenium, 0.15 % chromium) Grade 34 Titanium alloy (0.4 % nickel, 0.015 % palladium, 0.025 % ruthenium, 0.15 % chromium) Grade 35 Titanium alloy (4.5 % aluminum, 2 % molybdenum, 1.6 % vanadium, 0.5 % iron, 0.3 % silicon) Grade 36 Titanium alloy (45 % niobium) From the comparative study, the following conclusions were drawn: The yield stress, yield strength and ultimate strength are much higher for titanium. Hence it serves as a suitable material for calipers as it has to withstand the stress applied by the body weight and external forces. Lower stiffness of titanium with respect to stainless steel reduces the severity of stress-shielding. The density of titanium is lesser than stainless steel; therefore the calipers would be much lighter than those made of stainless steel, almost by half. As linear coefficient of thermal expansion is lesser for titanium, the caliper dimensions would not change much with change in temperature. Titanium is more corrosion resistant than stainless steel. Stainless steel relies on chromium to render it passive to corrosion. Titanium however develops passivity on its own from the stable oxide film that forms on its surface. Unalloyed titanium grade 2 has higher ductility and is hence, cast, formed, joined, and machined with relative ease as compared to the alloyed grades.   4. DESIGN OF CALIPER 4.1 DESIGN OF EXISTING CALIPERS 4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF IMPROVED DESIGN Software that was used for the development of caliper design: Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009. 4.2.1 ABOUT AUTODESK INVENTOR PROFESSIONAL 2009 Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009 helps you design, visualize and stimulate the end product desired digitally. It not only includes the 3D mechanical design and CAD productivity, but also the essential tooling of various parts of the end product required such as plastic, that lends itself to manufacturing, and also facilitating in validation of the product digitally, sparing the need to test with physical prototypes.    With the integration of motion simulation and stress analysis tools in Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009, marketing a product becomes a much easier. Effective prediction on how the product will work in real-time conditions can be done and also automation of important aspects of the design such as the injection molds for plastic parts help greatly in minimizing errors to a good extent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An intuitive design environment of Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009 helps in the development of initial sketches and models of different parts. Also, this software helps by automating the basic geometrical sketches to actual prototypes making using of materials such as plastic, steel frames, tubes etc. This therefore reduces the geometry burden and the time required to make necessary changes and bring about innovation in the product, thereby reducing the time it takes to reach the market. Validation, in earlier times, was a very time consuming and expensive process involving skilled specialists but Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009 has made the entire process very simple and simulation expertise is not required now. Simulation and optimization of designs digitally has become very easy due to this software. Simple user interface helps in part by part design and integration. Stress analysis can also be performed to evaluate areas of stress concentration and hence helps in distribution of the same by slight design modifications. Improved Design: Auto Desk Inventor 2009 supports all major drawing formats like DWG and some of the improved features compared to its previous versions include: Design views in high speed Saves a lot of time. Viewing of drawings and annotation takes very less time when compared to the previous versions. Betterment in error handling High level of intelligence to give suggestions regarding geometrical issues. Faster startup time Launch time is much faster when compared to previous versions. Part by part design view Immediate definition and change in any part including dimensions and coloring and suitable assembly instantly. New Standards for 3D Modeling Ease of Use Autodesk Inventor 2009 helps focusing on the problem rather than trying to gain expertise over using the software as such, owing to its advanced user interface and features, making complex dialog boxes redundant. Inventor Fusion Simple tools to explore new shapes and easy on the spot modification of model from any source. Improved design feature creation Better control over the geometry of the design with productivity uncompromised. Assembly design features [20] Assembly Snap tool Interference analysis and contact detection Assembly configurations Large assembly performance Frame Generator Weldments Content Center Design Doctor Direct manipulation It is an important feature of Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009 which helps in uninterrupted design workflow. Being able to control all the commands exactly at the point needed gives more room for free sketching, quicker assembly and better accuracy. Sustainable Design Material selection can now be done considering environmental effects and cost effectiveness. Using Autodesk, it is now possible to access environmental information on materials required for fabrication and make prudent decisions based on careful analysis. 4.2.2 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS OF THE CALIPER During the modeling, different parameters were measured which included Diameter of the mid- thigh Diameter of distal end of the thigh Distance between mid- thigh and distal end of the thigh Diameter of proximal end of the calf Distance between distal end of the thigh and proximal end of the calf Diameter of the distal end of the calf Distance between proximal and distal end of the calf Diameter of ankle Length of the foot Breadth of the toes Breadth of mid-foot Based on these parameters, the design of the calipers was developed using Autodesk Professional Inventor 2009 The drawing was modeled in parts and later assembled into the complete caliper as shown in the drawings. All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.1 Engineering drawing of KAFO All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.2 Engineering drawing of upper leg supporting structure (thigh) All dimensions are in mmFig 4.3 Engineering drawing of lower leg supporting structure (Calf) All dimensions are in mm Fig.4.4 Engineering drawing of the ankle and foot supporting structure All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.5 Engineering drawing of Ti-Strip1 All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.6 Engineering drawing of Ti-Strip 2 All dimensions are in mm Fig 4.7 Engineering drawing of Ti-Bend Strip Fig 4.8 Engineering drawing of the Male Clamp Fig 4.9 Engineering Drawing of Female Clamp Hence, by using Autodesk Inventor Professional 2009, the design for a caliper was developed. The different parts of the caliper were developed individually and later assembled to form a complete model. These diagrams are used as a basis for the development of the prototype. The major changes that were incorporated in the design were at the knee joint: Male and Female Clamp were used to replicate the hinge joint at the knee. In order to assist in easy bending of the caliper while sitting, a rivet was introduced which when unscrewed, will faclitate flexion at the knee. This is primarily useful while sitting and travelling as the caliper need not be completely removed. 5. DEVELOPMENT OF PROTOTYPE The development of prototype was conducted in essentially three steps: Development of PVC prototype Identification of problems and corresponding corrections made Development of titanium protoype 5.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS There are five major steps in manufacturing the Polyvinylchloride prototype. They have been listed and enumerated below: Marking This is the foremost step in manufacturing. It is also known as Material Planning. Knowing the required dimensions is a prerequisite. Once the dimensions for every part of

The Long-Suffering and Self-Pitying Odysseus Essay

What would it take to do Odysseus. the celebrated warrior and the pride of all Greece. call uncontrollably? Surely. he must be put through some kind of utmost physical hurting that no other person could last or possibly he is even forced to watch the awful slaughtering of his companions. But more frequently than non. it is merely mere words and memories. driven on by self-pity. non atrociousnesss committed against his crew. that make Odysseus call. Alternatively of moving as a compassionate leader who grieves for his lost friends. Odysseus calls to indulge his ain sense of sorrow at his jobs. and uses this to derive attending from others. By analyzing Odysseus’ eruptions of heartache. it becomes obvious that his selfishness and pride are at the very bosom of the obstructions he has faced on his journey place. Odysseus calls to fulfill his feelings of solitariness and desperation at being so hated by the Gods. When we foremost encounter Odysseus. he is sitting entirely on Calypso’s island. â€Å"weeping. his eyes ne'er dry. his sweet life fluxing off / with the cryings he wept for his defeated journey home† ( 5. 168-169 ) . At this point. Odysseus has been a captive on Calypso’s island for seven old ages. and has an intelligibly forlorn mentality sing his journey place. However. Odysseus spends every dark on the island moving as a lover to the beautiful goddess. whom he even admits is far more lovely and alluring than the married woman he yearns to return to. Though he pines for Penelope. his Acts of the Apostless of changeless unfaithfulness show that his guilt is non plagued by his actions. He is described as being an â€Å"unwilling lover† ( 5. 172 ) . but there is no grounds to propose that Odysseus feels he is perpetrating a offense against his married woman. Alternatively. Odysseus is described as being â€Å"no longer pleased† ( 5. 170 ) by Calypso. which suggests that at one point Odysseus may hold been really satisfied with his state of affairs. until he became homesick once more. It is an admirable trait that Odysseus so longs to travel place. but his self- commiseration twenty-four hours in and twenty-four hours out is anything but admirable. He seems to be holding his bar and eating it excessively. After seven old ages. he is still wallowing in unhappiness. unable to see that his destiny of being alive and good ( and seduced every night ) is still a much more favourable result than what his crew encountered. His selfishness merely lets him see â€Å"how long I have suffered! † ( 7. 181 ) . Odysseus besides uses his cryings to pull strings others into sympathising with him. When Odysseus eventually gets off Calypso’s island. he is beset by still more jobs. He finally finds shelter with Alcinous. the male monarch of Phaeacia. As is the usage. he is the receiver of great cordial reception and is made to experience at place. even though his hosts have no thought who he is. However. one dark after banqueting. the bard Demodocus sings about the struggle between Odysseus and Achilles during the Trojan War. At this point. Odysseus becomes so overwrought and overcome with emotion that he â€Å"hid his face and wept† ( 8. 109 ) . The text besides says that he is â€Å"ashamed his hosts might see him casting tears† ( 8. 103 ) . but why is he shouting in the first topographic point? The bard is non even singing about all that Odysseus has suffered. and is merely mentioning to his statement with Achilles. which was a prophesied triumph mark. It is really possible that Odysseus is shouting because he wants to be found out. These people evidently adore the Odysseus they know through narratives. so wouldn’t they worship the flesh and blood version if they were of all time to run into him? Alternatively of merely stating. â€Å"I am Odysseus† . he alternatively waits. calls a 2nd clip until his heartache is publically noticed. leting people to experience regretful for him and inquire what would do him so much hurting. This gives Odysseus the perfect chance to state the atrocious narrative of his trip place. which he does. full of the problems that could hold been avoided had Odysseus restrained his pride and selfishness. The shame that Odysseus might experience at openly shouting in forepart of aliens is outweighed by the satisfaction he gets out of stating his narrative. because wretchedness does so love company. Odysseus’s pride besides prevents him from demoing regard towards his work forces. by non minding their advice and by non decently mourning their ill-timed deceases. At Alcinous’ tribunal. Odysseus recounts his experience with the Cyclops. The whole problem with this one eyed monster begins when Odysseus decides to linger in the Cyclops’s cave after eating his nutrient. to see â€Å"what gifts he would give† ( 9. 258 ) . Alternatively of welcoming the Achaeans. the monster decides to eat the work forces who had impolitely eaten his nutrient. In sudden daze and horror. Odysseus and his work forces â€Å"wept and cried aloud† ( 9. 331 ) . Finally. through a clever program by Odysseus. he and his work forces escape. but about decease once more because of his pride. Teasing back to the Cyclops. Odysseus reveals who he is. which allows the monster to about fall in their ships. and besides to publish a ailment to Poseidon that he should non allow Odysseus return place. Poseidon hears this. and as a consequence. Odysseus and his crew are from so on beset by job after job. Had Odysseus listened to his crew who begged him to go forth the cave before the Cyclops returned and besides to non boast his individuality to the monster. the work forces would hold made it safely place. Even after witnessing the cannibalism of some of his crew. Odysseus is merely â€Å"glad to get away our decease / yet sick at bosom for the companions we had lost† ( 9. 630 ) . He does non look to be excessively devastated by everything that has merely happened to him. expletive and all. Possibly it is because he is surrounded by others who portion the same destiny. and aren’t as willing to be every bit sympathetic as a group of aliens hearing the narrative from a legendary hero would be. Odysseus besides tells the narrative of the Laestrygonians. who eat a high figure of Odysseus’ crew. Once once more. Odysseus is â€Å"sick at heart† ( 10. 147 ) . but feels small else for his dead friends and does non cry at all for their memory. When his crew begins to mourn for those lost. Odysseus about seems fed up and says â€Å"They explosion into calls. howling. streaming unrecorded cryings / that gained us nil – what good can come of heartache? † ( 10. 221 ) . At this point it becomes really obvious that Odysseus merely deems it necessary to shout. when he is the one being wept for. He has no job shouting in forepart of aliens who are unwittingly praising him. he sees nil incorrect with shouting mundane for seven old ages because he is marooned with a beautiful goddess. yet there is something uneconomical about crying for work forces who were viciously killed and eaten. all because he felt the demand to state the Cyclops that he. the great Odysseu s. was the 1 who blinded him. While pride may hold been the ruin of Odysseus. without it he would ne'er hold reached the position of a hero. His pride and desire for glorification were a major drive force behind all his great schemes and war attempts. Without his strong self-esteem. Odysseus would hold alternatively been merely another expendable member of his crew. Yes. the selfishness of the crew is besides evident when they open the bag of air currents and blow the ship off class. but actions like these are to be expected from work forces who are of such low importance in the heroic poem that they are non even named. But from Odysseus. the reader should demand a higher degree of criterions. and expect him to move responsible for the work forces whose lives are entrusted into his attention. When Odysseus does non shout after his work forces are slaughtered and alternatively goes on with his work. it appears that he is merely moving as a strong leader. But when you consider other minutes when he is really weak a nd does shout openly. it is apparent to see that he merely weeps for those deserving crying for. And to Odysseus. the lone one worth casting a tear for is himself. Thesis: Alternatively of moving as a compassionate leader who grieves for his lost friends. Odysseus calls to indulge his ain sense of sorrow at his jobs. and uses this to derive attending from others. By analyzing Odysseus’ eruptions of heartache. it becomes obvious that his selfishness and pride are at the very bosom of the obstructions he has faced on his journey place. Subordinate Ideas: 1. Cries out of ego commiseration and solitariness 2. Cries to pull strings others 3. Does non esteem shipmates a. Does non listen to their advice and suffers the effects B. Does non decently mourn them when they die partially because of his actions 4. Pride and selfishness allow Odysseus to go a hero

Religious Identities as a Source of Violence the Relationship Between Religion and Other Components Free Essay Example, 1500 words

It is evident from the discussion that the general source of, or collective ideological ancestry between, institutions of faith does not diminish violence among religions. The clashes between Semitic religions, specifically Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, have been present since their foundation and are continuing. Likewise, the disagreements between Indic religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism are olden and hard-wearing. On the contrary, there are cases of religious communities from very distinct ideological contexts serenely co-existing as demonstrated in the instances of Hinduism and Islam in Indonesia as well as Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism in India (Bromley Melton, 2002). From the discussion and arguments above it is evident that when religion is attached to the notion of nationality or nations and citizenship or states it consistently develops to be an origin of violence among religions. However, dissimilarities in dogmas and faiths also frequent ly fuel intra-religious violence (Haar Busuttil, 2005). The violence which they carry out is well-known in the instances of Catholics and Protestants, Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhists, Sunnis and Shias, even though the gravity of violence differs among these religious denominations. We will write a custom essay sample on Religious Identities as a Source of Violence: the Relationship Between Religion and Other Components or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now In a number of instances, the new subsidiaries are not even acknowledged by the majority organization as part of their religion. The historicity evidence of the connection between religion and violence evidently shows that in various parts of the globe at various historical eras all religions were or are roots of violence. Furthermore, attaching religion with the concept of nation, state and minority group is a guaranteed incitement to generate and discharge violence. Also, religious identities can be a source of violence infusion with the notions of nation and state, with independence and capitalism, and with modernity. But ultimately, and most significantly, religion itself does not have an inherent component that could generate violence.

The History of Social Work in the Caribbean - 3239 Words

Social work and Social Welfare has been with us from as far back as the 1600s and it has always been, and has continued to be a response to human needs. In order to understand its historical development, it is necessary to examine the significant factors, which has influenced its evolution. It can be said however that factors such as the establishment of the Elizabethan poor laws, the emancipation of slavery and the social unrest which resulted in the 1937 riots, played a momentous role in the development of social work and social welfare. This was evident throughout the Caribbean since they share a common colonial history for a number of years, according to John Maxwell. For the purpose of this essay, specific focus will be on two of its†¦show more content†¦Thus, this resulted in a greater demand for social services. Compassionate persons, particularly women, observing and monitoring the conditions of ex-slaves, formed charitable organizations, in alliance with the Public Poor Relief System in order to help with their welfare. Despite the fact that the vestries were also established at this time to provide a more organized form of social services, the needs of the individuals were still not being met. Therefore according to Willoughby, in 1875 a bill was passed in the House of Assembly to appoint a Commission to investigate the administration of Poor Relief. The report subsequently listed a number of contributing factors to pauperism, which included seasonal unemployment during the end of the crop season, illness, disabilities and the payment of low wages. Included also was the fact that they were a number of broken common law unions in which the fathers were absent. Administrative problem also existed since the vestries in the eleven parishes operated separately. 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